The Alder is monoecious. Shown here: maturing male flower catkins on right, last year's female catkins on left

Holly (Ilex aquifolium) is dioecious: (above) shoot with flowers from male plant; (top right) male flower enlarged, showing stamens with pollen and reduced, sterile stigma; (below) shoot with flowers from female plant; (lower right) female flower enlarged, showing stigma and reduced, sterile stamens with no pollen

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Reproduction Beds

Plant sexuality deals with the wide variety of sexual reproduction systems found across the plant kingdom. This article describes morphological aspects of sexual reproduction of plants. more...

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That plants employ many different strategies to engage in sexual reproduction was used, from just a structural perspective, by Carolus Linnaeus (1735 and 1753) to propose a system of classification of flowering plants. Later this subject received attention from Christian Konrad Sprengel (1793) who described plant sexuality as the \"revealed secret of nature\" and, for the first time, understood the biotic and abiotic interactions of the pollination process. Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection are based on his work. Flowers, the reproductive structures of angiosperms, are more varied than the equivalent structures of any other group of organisms, and flowering plants also have an unrivalled diversity of sexual systems (Barrett, 2002). But sexuality and the significance of sexual reproductive strategies is no less important in all of the other plant groups. The breeding system is the single most important determinant of the mating structure of nonclonal plant populations. The mating structure in turn controls the amount and distribution of genetic variation, a central element in the evolutionary process (Costich, 1995).

Terminology

The complexity of the systems and devices used by plants to achieve sexual reproduction has resulted in botanists and evolutionary biologists proposing numerous terms to describe structures and strategies. Dellaporta and Calderon-Urrea (1993) list and define a variety of terms used to describe the modes of sexuality at different levels in flowering plants. This list is reproduced here (taken from Molner, 2004), generalized to fit more than just plants that have flowers, and expanded to include other terms and better definitions.

Individual reproductive unit (a flower in angiosperms)

Bisexual - Reproductive structure with both male and female equivalent parts (stamens and pistil in angiosperms; also called a perfect or complete flower); another term widely used is hermaphrodite.; Unisexual - Reproductive structure that is either functionally male or functionally female. In angiosperms this condition is also called imperfect or incomplete.;

Individual plant

Hermaphrodite - A plant that has only hermaphrodite reproductive units (flowers, conifer cones, or functionally equivalent structures). In angiosperm terminology a synonym is monoclinous from the Greek \"one bed\".; Monoecious - having unisexual reproductive units (flowers, conifer cones, or functionally equivalent structures) of both sexes appearing on the same plant; from Greek for \"one household\".; Dioecious - having unisexual reproductive units (flowers, conifer cones, or functionally equivalent structures) occurring on different individuals; from Greek for \"two households\". Individual plants are not called dioecious: they are either gynoecious or androecious.; Because many dioecious conifers show a tendency towards monoecy (that is, a female plant may sometimes produce small numbers of male cones or vice versa), these species are termed subdioecious (McCormick & Andresen, 1963).; In angiosperm terminology, diclinous (\"two beds\") includes all species with unisexual flowers, although particularly those with only unisexual flowers, i.e. the monoecious and dioecious species.; Gynoecious - has only female reproductive structures; the \"female\" plant.; Androecious - has only male reproductive structures; the \"male\" plant.; Gynomonoecious - has both hermaphrodite and female structures.; Andromonoecious - has both hermaphrodite and male structures.; Trimonoecious (polygamous) - male, female, and hermaphrodite structures all appear on the same plant.;